Engagement Strategies

Nahouli, Zacharia, Jay-Marie Mackenzie, Andreas Aresti, and Coral Dando (2023). "Rapport Building with Offenders in Probation Supervision: The Views of English Probation Practitioners." Probation Journal, 70(2): 104-123.

Abstract: Rapport-based supervision in probation is linked to positive behavioural change and reduced reoffending for probation service users. However, the process of rapport building is not well documented in probation practice. This study conducted focus groups and interviews with London-based probation practitioners to understand their views of rapport when supervising service users. Thematic analysis generated five themes related to how practitioners facilitated rapport building and maintenance, as well as several barriers that exist towards building and maintaining rapport – these were conceptualised as a rapport-building process. We provide recommendations to help alleviate barriers and further facilitate the rapport-building process.

Lewis, Sarah (2014). “Learning from success and failure: Deconstructing the Working Relationship within Probation Practice and Exploring its Impact on Probationers, using a Collaborative Approach” Probation Journal, 61(2): 161-175.

Abstract: Whilst a positive working relationship has been recognized as a ‘powerful vehicle’ for offender change (NOMS, 2010), little is known in respect to how powerful a positive working relationship can be for probationers and the impact it may have upon their lives. From considering the ‘experience’ of a working relationship, this study evaluated ‘what worked’ for probationers by drawing from the successes and failures within a relational context. The study also explored the impact of these relationships upon the probationers, both at the time of the relationship and once it had ceased. Seven probationers were involved in this collaborative study, assisting in the design and analysis of the study, as ‘experts’ in probation relationships. The results tentatively suggested that certain characteristics (acceptance, respect, support, empathy and belief) enable a positive relational climate to exist that has a powerful impact upon the probationer, their beliefs and their behaviour. Conversely, if the probation supervisor (PS) fails to demonstrate these characteristics, a ‘toxic’ environment for change is more probable and could lead to greater risk of offending.

Creating a Connection

Viglione, Jill, Danielle S. Rudes, and Faye S. Taxman (2017). “Probation Officer use of Client-Centered Communication Strategies in Adult Probation Settings” Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 56(1): 38-60

Abstract: Growing research identifies the importance of communication between probation officers and probationers. The current study examines use of motivational, client-centered communication strategies in an adult probation setting. Using surveys and observational data, this work explores: (a) whether probation officers are comfortable using motivational communication strategies and (b) how probation officers communicate with probationers. Findings suggest probation officers attempt to integrate motivational techniques in their interactions, directive, but authoritarian strategies dominate probation officer– probationer interactions. Study implications emphasize the need to enhance implementation of client-centered communication strategies to improve offender outcomes and move away from authoritarian and risk management practices.

Carr, Priyanka B., and Gregory M. Walton (2014). “Cues of Working Together Fuel Intrinsic Motivation” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 53: 169-184.

Abstract: What psychological mechanisms facilitate social coordination and cooperation? The present research examined the hypothesis that social cues that signal an invitation to work with others can fuel intrinsic motivation even when people work alone. Holding constant other factors, participants exposed to cues of working together persisted longer on a challenging task (Experiments 1 and 3), expressed greater interest in and enjoyment of the task (Experiments 1, 3, and 5), required less self-regulatory effort to persist on the task (Experiment 2), became more engrossed in and performed better on the task (Experiment 4), and, when encouraged to link this motivation to their values and self-concept, chose to do more related tasks in an unconnected setting 1–2 weeks later (Experiment 5). The results suggest that cues of working together can inspire intrinsic motivation, turning work into play. The discussion addresses the social–relational bases of motivation and implications for the self and application.

Reframing Conditions

Harding, David J., Bruce Western, and Jasmin A. Sandelson (2022). “From Supervision to Opportunity: Reimagining Probation and Parole” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 701(1): 8-25

Abstract: Across a variety of measures of safety and rehabilitation, our current systems of parole and probation are failing. Research shows that community supervision fails to reduce crime; traps its subjects in cycles of criminal justice involvement; is excessively punitive; and creates widespread harm to individuals, families, and communities—all while failing to significantly contribute to the social and economic integration of those under its control. We argue for a wholesale reform of community supervision, including the abandonment of current monitoring and control functions, and the repurposing of resources into systems of support for the hundreds of thousands of people leaving prison and jail every year. We also provide an overview to the articles assembled for this volume, which chart the challenges facing those on community supervision and offer a roadmap of potential policy solutions for improving the life chances of formerly incarcerated and justice-involved people.

Lovins, Brian K., Francis T. Cullen, Edward J. Latessa, and Cheryl Lero Jonson (2018). “Probation Officer as a Coach: Building a New Professional Identity” Federal Probation, 82.

Abstract: In many agencies, probation officers have been encouraged or been permitted to follow the job role of "referee." Because research links supervision effectiveness to officers having quality relationships with offenders, adopting a human service orientation, and using correctional skills, the authors propose that the job role of "coach" aligns more closely with this evidence.

Establishing our Role and Clarifying Expectations

Chamberlain, Alyssa W., Matthew Gricius, Danielle M. Wallace, Diana Borjas, and Vincent M. Ware (2018). “Parolee-Parole Officer Rapport: Does it Impact Recidivism” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(11): 3581-3602.

Abstract: Parole officers are an integral part of parolees’ reentry process and success. Few studies, however, have examined whether the quality of the relationship between parolees and their parole officer influences outcomes such as recidivism. This study assesses how recidivism is affected by the quality of the relationship that parolees have with their parole officers. Using the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative (SVORI) dataset, we use parolees’ perceptions of their relationship with their parole officer to determine whether they have established a positive or negative relationship, and whether these types of relationships differentially affect recidivism. Results show that parolees who have a negative relationship with their parole officer have higher rates of recidivism, while a positive relationship lowers parolees’ likelihood of recidivating. An implication of this study emphasizes parole officer training that develops positive, high-quality relationships with parolees. Further implications are discussed below.

Defining the Supervision Process

Dowden, Craig, and Don A. Andrews (2004). “The Importance of Staff Practice in Delivering Effective Correctional Treatment: A Meta-Analytic Review of Core Correctional Practice” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48(2): 203-214.

Abstract: Several meta-analyses have rendered strong support for the clinically relevant and psychologically informed principles of human service, risk, need, and general responsivity. However, each of these reviews has focused on specific program components and not on the characteristics of the staff or the specific techniques used to deliver the program. This meta-analytic review examines the role of core correctional practices in reducing recidivism and provides strong preliminary evidence regarding their effectiveness. Staff characteristics and training in core skills must be addressed to ensure the maximum therapeutic impact of correctional treatment programs.

Lovins, Brian K., Francis T. Cullen, Edward J. Latessa, and Cheryl Lero Jonson (2018). “Probation Officer as a Coach: Building a New Professional Identity” Federal Probation, 82.

Abstract: In many agencies, probation officers have been encouraged or been permitted to follow the job role of "referee." Because research links supervision effectiveness to officers having quality relationships with offenders, adopting a human service orientation, and using correctional skills, the authors propose that the job role of "coach" aligns more closely with this evidence.

Learn About the Person

Bucklen, Kristofer Bret, and Gary Zajac (2009). “But Some of Them Don’t Come Back (to Prison!) Resource Deprivation and Thinking Errors as Determinants of Parole Success and Failure” The Prison Journal, 89(3): 239-264.

Abstract: This article reports on a study of the causes and correlates of parole success and failure in Pennsylvania. Surveys, interviews, and focus groups were conducted with parole violators and parole successes. Data were collected on employment, housing, social relations, supervision, and parolees’ responses to parole challenges. The primary correlates of parole failure were found to be antisocial attitudes, poor problem-solving and coping skills, and unrealistic expectations about life after release from prison. Contrary to expectations, this study found little evidence that job acquisition or housing were significant parole challenges. The greatest problem for parolees was managing themselves in a prosocial manner while facing demands from their environment.

Viglione, Jill, Danielle S. Rudes, and Faye S. Taxman (2015). “"Misalignment in Supervision: Implementing Risk/Needs Assessment Instruments in Probation." Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42(3): 263-285.

Abstract: Risk and needs assessment (RNA) tools are well regarded as a critical component of a community corrections organization implementing evidence-based practices (EBPs), given the potential impact of using such tools on offender-level and system outcomes. The current study examines how probation officers (POs) use a validated RNA tool in two adult probation settings. Using interview and observational data, this study explores how POs use an assessment tool during all facets of their work from preplanning, routine administrative tasks, and face-to-face case management interactions with probation clients. Findings suggest POs overwhelmingly administer the RNA tool, but rarely link the RNA scores to key case management or supervision decisions. These findings highlight some of the challenges and complexities associated with the application of RNA tools in everyday practice. Study implications emphasize the need to modify current probation practices to create a synergy between the RNA and related supervision practices. Findings from this study contribute to a better appreciation for how the new penology integrates risk management with client-centered case models to improve outcomes.

Introduction to Assessments

Viglione, Jill (2019). “The Risk-Need-Responsivity Model: How Do Probation Officers Implement the Principles of Effective Intervention?” Criminal Justice and Behavior, 46(5): 655-673.

Abstract: The advancement of evidence-based practices (EBP) and the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model suggests several key practices for probation agencies, including validated risk and needs assessments and appropriate treatment matching. Despite evidence supporting use of practices aligned with the RNR model to improve offender outcomes, research identifies significant implementation challenges in probation practice. Using 1,084 hours of ethnographic data, the current study sought to examine how probation staff implemented best practices aligned with the risk, need, and responsivity principles. Analyses suggest probation staff supervision practices misaligned with research evidence on RNR and associated agency trainings. Probation officers rarely used the risk and needs assessment to inform supervision decisions, creation of case plans, and referrals to treatment programs. Findings highlight the challenges associated with moving evidence on the RNR model to routine probation practice. Implications for policy and research are discussed, including a focus on perceived liability and implementation of best practices.

Bucklen, Kristofer Bret, Duwe, Grant and Taxman, Faye S. (2021). “Guidelines for Post-Sentencing Risk Assessment.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 2021, NCJ 300654, https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/300654.pdf .

Abstract: This paper is devoted to an important topic — risk and needs assessment (RNA) instruments for post-sentencing decision-making. It is primarily about risk assessment, but the principles also apply to needs assessments. In this paper, we discuss four principles that we believe are the most critical to guide both the design and implementation of datainformed decision-making tools: fairness, efficiency, effectiveness, and communication. Although there are other principles, our collective experience reveals that attention to these dimensions would benefit practitioners, researchers, industry leaders, and the general public. In particular, we believe that practitioners should understand the facets of quality RNA tools to ensure that their agency benefits from using state-of-the art design processes and implementing them to achieve high fidelity to the goals of proper prediction. Researchers will benefit from a visible set of guidelines to ensure that their partnerships with practitioners achieve the same goals of high-quality design and implementation.

Sharing Information from the Assessment Process

King, Christopher M. and Heilbrun, Kirk (2021). “Effects of Criminogenic Risk-Needs Assessment Feedback During Prerelease Correctional Rehabilitation.” Criminal Justice and Behavior, 48(5): 575-595.

Abstract: This pre–post follow-up randomized trial investigated the receptiveness and responsiveness of 82 incarcerated men undergoing reentry to feedback (discussion-based, form-based, or none–minimal) regarding their criminogenic risk–needs assessment results. Both short-term outcomes (self-perceived risk–needs, motivation for change, treatment readiness, and feedback satisfaction) and longer-term outcomes (intuitional conduct, rearrest, or halfway house return) were examined. As hypothesized, among study completers (n = 67), motivation for change was significantly higher following discussion feedback, and both feedback formats were rated favorably by participants. Contrary to hypotheses, feedback recipients, including those who showed gains at post, did not appear reliably distinct from others on longer-term outcomes; nor were most outcomes significantly associated with baseline risk scores. Feedback about risk and needs may be useful in correctional treatment for motivation enhancement and treatment orienting, but special attention to measurement, contextual, and intensity factors is warranted.

Finn, Stephen E. and Tonsager, Mary E. (1997). “Information-Gathering and Therapeutic Models of Assessment Complementary Paradigms.” Psychological Assessment, 9(4): 374-385.

Abstract: The authors reviewed the other articles in the special section and commented on the use of psychological assessment to plan treatment. They call this view of assessment the information-gathering paradigm, because the goal is to collect data that will aid in communication and decision making about clients. This contrasts with the therapeutic model of assessment, in which the major goal is to produce positive change in clients. The authors summarized evidence of the efficacy of assessment as a brief therapy and discussed its possible therapeutic mechanisms. The information-gathering and therapeutic models of assessment are complementary rather than mutually exclusive, and both speak to the utility of assessment. The current crisis in the clinical use of psychological assessment may be due in part to an overemphasis on the information-gathering model.

Nahouli, Zacharia, Jay-Marie Mackenzie, Andreas Aresti, and Coral Dando (2023). "Rapport Building with Offenders in Probation Supervision: The Views of English Probation Practitioners." Probation Journal, 70(2): 104-123.

Abstract: Rapport-based supervision in probation is linked to positive behavioural change and reduced reoffending for probation service users. However, the process of rapport building is not well documented in probation practice. This study conducted focus groups and interviews with London-based probation practitioners to understand their views of rapport when supervising service users. Thematic analysis generated five themes related to how practitioners facilitated rapport building and maintenance, as well as several barriers that exist towards building and maintaining rapport – these were conceptualised as a rapport-building process. We provide recommendations to help alleviate barriers and further facilitate the rapport-building process.

What Does Success Look Like?

Barry, Monica (2021). “’Walking on Ice’: The Future of Parole in a Risk-Obsessed Society.” Theoretical Criminology, 25(2): 325-342.

Abstract: The aim of risk assessment and management in criminal justice is increasingly about minimizing opportunities to create harm to the public rather than maximizing opportunities to create change in offenders. This seems to be particularly the case in respect of parole, where the balance of public protection with rehabilitation has become increasingly unstable in prioritizing the former. This article examines parole decision making and management within the UK from the perspectives of both high risk offenders on licence and parole professionals. It discusses two key drivers to burgeoning recall rates: the stringency of licence conditions and the propensity of professionals to recall in the name of risk elimination rather than risk reduction. The article concludes that the effectiveness of parole is in question, not least in enabling reentry and reintegration of high risk prisoners. In particular, the future sustainability of parole itself is deemed to be under threat.

Lovins, Brian K., Francis T. Cullen, Edward J. Latessa, and Cheryl Lero Jonson (2018). “Probation Officer as a Coach: Building a New Professional Identity” Federal Probation, 82.

Abstract: In many agencies, probation officers have been encouraged or been permitted to follow the job role of "referee." Because research links supervision effectiveness to officers having quality relationships with offenders, adopting a human service orientation, and using correctional skills, the authors propose that the job role of "coach" aligns more closely with this evidence.

Where Are You Now?

Bucklen, Kristofer Bret, and Gary Zajac (2009). “But Some of Them Don’t Come Back (to Prison!) Resource Deprivation and Thinking Errors as Determinants of Parole Success and Failure” The Prison Journal, 89(3): 239-264.

Abstract: This article reports on a study of the causes and correlates of parole success and failure in Pennsylvania. Surveys, interviews, and focus groups were conducted with parole violators and parole successes. Data were collected on employment, housing, social relations, supervision, and parolees’ responses to parole challenges. The primary correlates of parole failure were found to be antisocial attitudes, poor problem-solving and coping skills, and unrealistic expectations about life after release from prison. Contrary to expectations, this study found little evidence that job acquisition or housing were significant parole challenges. The greatest problem for parolees was managing themselves in a prosocial manner while facing demands from their environment.

Cullen, Francis. (2022). “The end of American exceptionalism: An enlightened corrections.” Criminology & Public Policy, 21(4): 769-786.

Abstract: The United States is at a turning point in the history of corrections. Suddenly and surprisingly, the era of mass incarceration ended around 2010. Since that time, prison populations, public punitiveness, and get‐tough rhetoric have declined. A challenging question remains, however: Now what? Doing more of the same is foolish but likely. Prison reform is inhibited by the twin realities that states have limited budgets and have existing prisons that are rarely shuttered. New thinking is needed to move beyond these restrictions. One guide for a cognitive shift is Steven Pinker's Enlightenment Now in which he argues that sustained improvement in human well‐being in the United States and across the globe is due to the Enlightenment principles of reason, science, humanism, and progress. In this context, an “enlightened corrections” is possible in which policies and practices are evaluated by the four ideals articulated by Pinker. As one example, mass imprisonment is shown to be irrational, unscientific, inhumane, and bereft of a future. By contrast, more promising policies seek to nourish offenders by offering redemption and by using community supervision to build quality relationships that provide a means for targeting risk factors for intervention. The key policy implication is the proposal to place prison reform within the Biden Administration's support for infrastructure improvement. Funded by the federal government, a “Build Back Better Prison Experiment” would be undertaken in which 10 experimental prisons—designed from a clean slate and selected through a competition—would be created and evaluated. The goal is to establish prisons that are rational in their planning, are evidence based, improve offenders’ lives, and foster a new era of progress in American corrections.

What’s Keeping You From Getting There?

Bucklen, Kristofer Bret, and Gary Zajac (2009). “But Some of Them Don’t Come Back (to Prison!) Resource Deprivation and Thinking Errors as Determinants of Parole Success and Failure” The Prison Journal, 89(3): 239-264.

Abstract: This article reports on a study of the causes and correlates of parole success and failure in Pennsylvania. Surveys, interviews, and focus groups were conducted with parole violators and parole successes. Data were collected on employment, housing, social relations, supervision, and parolees’ responses to parole challenges. The primary correlates of parole failure were found to be antisocial attitudes, poor problem-solving and coping skills, and unrealistic expectations about life after release from prison. Contrary to expectations, this study found little evidence that job acquisition or housing were significant parole challenges. The greatest problem for parolees was managing themselves in a prosocial manner while facing demands from their environment.

Building a Success Plan

Viglione, Jill, Danielle S. Rudes, and Faye S. Taxman (2017). “Probation Officer use of Client-Centered Communication Strategies in Adult Probation Settings” Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 56(1): 38-60

Abstract: Growing research identifies the importance of communication between probation officers and probationers. The current study examines use of motivational, client-centered communication strategies in an adult probation setting. Using surveys and observational data, this work explores: (a) whether probation officers are comfortable using motivational communication strategies and (b) how probation officers communicate with probationers. Findings suggest probation officers attempt to integrate motivational techniques in their interactions, directive, but authoritarian strategies dominate probation officer– probationer interactions. Study implications emphasize the need to enhance implementation of client-centered communication strategies to improve offender outcomes and move away from authoritarian and risk management practices.

Policy Reforms Can Strengthen Community Supervision :A framework to improve probation and parole, The Pew Charitable Trusts Report April 2020 p.20

Overview:.... states and agencies need time to analyze their systems and enact reforms on a much larger scale to ensure that probation and parole function more effectively. To help states meet this challenge, The Pew Charitable Trusts, in partnership with Arnold Ventures, established the Advisory Council on Community Supervision to develop a policy framework for state lawmakers, court officers, and community corrections personnel With those goals in mind, the council developed a menu of policies that state decision-makers and supervision administrators can use to reshape community supervision. Arnold Ventures supported the Robina Institute of Criminal Law and Criminal Justice at the University of Minnesota to examine the research underlying the policies and practices identified by the council, and where such an evidence base exists, it is summarized and cited in this framework.

Success Planning

Lewis, Sarah (2014). “Exploring Positive Working Relationships in Light of the Aims of Probation, Using a Collaborative Approach.” Probation Journal, 61(4): 334- 345.

Abstract: This article begins to consider the factors that promote the formation of a positive working relationship (PWR) between practitioner and probationer. The results from a pilot study are used to review the importance of ‘assist, advice and befriend’ and ‘confront, challenge and change’ within current practitioner−offender relationships. Through collaborative design, five probationers completed visual narratives to explore significant PWRs with criminal justice professionals and 36 probation staff completed a questionnaire to examine their beliefs around PWRs with probationers. The results highlight the benefit of demonstrating a genuine belief in probationers’ capacity to change and are discussed in light of the literature.

King, Christopher M. and Heilbrun, Kirk (2021). “Effects of Criminogenic Risk-Needs Assessment Feedback During Prerelease Correctional Rehabilitation.” Criminal Justice and Behavior, 48(5): 575-595.

Abstract: This pre–post follow-up randomized trial investigated the receptiveness and responsiveness of 82 incarcerated men undergoing reentry to feedback (discussion-based, form-based, or none–minimal) regarding their criminogenic risk–needs assessment results. Both short-term outcomes (self-perceived risk–needs, motivation for change, treatment readiness, and feedback satisfaction) and longer-term outcomes (intuitional conduct, rearrest, or halfway house return) were examined. As hypothesized, among study completers (n = 67), motivation for change was significantly higher following discussion feedback, and both feedback formats were rated favorably by participants. Contrary to hypotheses, feedback recipients, including those who showed gains at post, did not appear reliably distinct from others on longer-term outcomes; nor were most outcomes significantly associated with baseline risk scores. Feedback about risk and needs may be useful in correctional treatment for motivation enhancement and treatment orienting, but special attention to measurement, contextual, and intensity factors is warranted.

Establishing Progress Measures

Ostermann, Michael, Hyatt, Jordan M., DeWitt, Samuel E. (2019). “The Influence of Technical Violation Revocations of Parole Efficacy: Employing Competing Risks Survival Analyses to Address Methodological Challenges.” Journal of Crime and Justice, 43(3): 323-341.

Abstract: Failures among the community supervision population are a major contributor to prison populations. Revocations of parole supervision due to technical parole violations (TPRs) often result in the incarceration of a parolee for violating the terms of their supervised release. This study employs several strategies for integrating TPRs into the construct of recidivism, a common outcome measure in correctional evaluations. TPRs are either ignored, combined with rearrest, or treated as a competing risk to rearrest. Each framework is employed to estimate survival rates among multi-year prison release cohorts in which parolee supervision is stratified by actuarial risk level. Results suggest that the way TPRs are integrated into evaluations of parolee recidivistic behavior patterns can influence the magnitude and nature of a study’s results. This is significant as costly policy decisions are often informed by evaluation research focusing on time to failure measures. Methodological and ideological remedies are proposed.

Pathways to Success

Harding, David J., Bruce Western, and Jasmin A. Sandelson (2022). “From Supervision to Opportunity: Reimagining Probation and Parole” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 701(1): 8-25

Abstract: Across a variety of measures of safety and rehabilitation, our current systems of parole and probation are failing. Research shows that community supervision fails to reduce crime; traps its subjects in cycles of criminal justice involvement; is excessively punitive; and creates widespread harm to individuals, families, and communities—all while failing to significantly contribute to the social and economic integration of those under its control. We argue for a wholesale reform of community supervision, including the abandonment of current monitoring and control functions, and the repurposing of resources into systems of support for the hundreds of thousands of people leaving prison and jail every year. We also provide an overview to the articles assembled for this volume, which chart the challenges facing those on community supervision and offer a roadmap of potential policy solutions for improving the life chances of formerly incarcerated and justice-involved people.

Creating Capacity

Dominey, Jane (2019). “Probation Supervision as a Network of Relationships: Aiming to be Thick, Not Thin.” Probation Journal, 66(3): 283-302.

Abstract: This article is about the networks of relationships (between people and between organisations) that underpin probation supervision. Drawing on evidence from a study researching these interactions, it develops two models of supervision (‘thin’ and ‘thick’) by taking themes that shape supervision and charting the interplay between them. The article develops these models in the increasingly fragmented landscape that has followed the Transforming Rehabilitation (TR) reforms in England and Wales. The concepts of ‘thin’ and ‘thick’ are used here to describe the supervisory network. Thin supervision describes a minimal and administrative approach to supervision. By contrast, thick supervision requires a network with strong and purposeful links. The article acknowledges the impact of public sector spending cuts on probation services and concludes by reflecting on the challenge of building and sustaining

Williams, Gemma C. and Schaefer, Lacey (2022). “Proposed Principles for Procedurally Just Probation and Parole Practices.” Corrections: 1-25.

Abstract: As part of a qualitative evaluation of a trial of a new model of community corrections (Triple-S: Social Supports in Supervision), we interviewed 53 probationers and parolees about their experiences with supervision. Although procedural justice was not the direct focus of the trial or its evaluation and participants were not overtly prompted, participants independently communicated the importance of procedural justice elements in shaping their interactions with their supervising officer, their perceptions of the agency, and their attitudes and behaviors relevant to their correctional order. Following a thematic analysis of these responses, we propose ten principles for procedurally just probation and parole practices. We suggest that probation and parole officers should: (1) be courteous, (2) avoid labeling,(3) explain, (4) listen, (5) hear, (6) be consistent, (7) be measured, (8) reserve judgment, (9) be invested, and (10) problem-solve. From this introductory exploratory study, we urge further research into the utility of these guiding elements. Subsequent scholarship may demonstrate how they enhance community corrections practices by improving officer decision-making and client interactions, which in turn is predicted to increase probationer and parolee engagement and subsequent compliance.

Annison, Jill, Eadie, Tina, and Knight, Charlotte (2008). “People First: Probation Officer Perspectives on Probation Work.” The Journal of Community and Criminal Justice, 55(3): 259-271.

Abstract: The Probation Service has experienced massive changes during the past 10 years, including the way in which its probation officers are trained. Whether or not the espoused intention of this latter change was to introduce a ‘new breed’ of officer more versed in control than care, the three studies reported here all demonstrate the same finding, namely that individuals enter the training to work with people, and that they continue to achieve most satisfaction from this. The studies focus variously on newly qualified officers, those in training, and those applying for training. This article reviews these studies and offers a critical analysis of their key findings.

Chadwick, Nick, Dewolf, Angela, and Serin, Ralph (2015). “Effectively Training Community Supervision Officers: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Impact on Offender Outcome.” Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42(10): 977-989.

Abstract: The development and implementation of training programs aimed at increasing community supervision officers’ use of core correctional practices served as the focus of this review. Studies that evaluated the effect that officer training had on offender outcome were included in the review. Based on 10 studies (N = 8,335), this meta-analysis found that when offenders were supervised by officers who received training in core correctional practices, they demonstrated reductions in recidivism (odds ratio [OR] = 1.48) compared with those offenders supervised by the status quo. The results support further use of such training programs and emphasize the benefit to public safety as well as the fiscal savings that can result from sound implementation. However, this was an initial review, and further research is needed to confirm and extend these findings.

Skeem, Jennifer L., Jennifer Eno Louden, Devon Polaschek, and Jacqueline Camp (2007). “Assessing Relationship Quality in Mandated Community Treatment: Blending Care with Control.” Psychological Assessment, 19(4): 397-410.

Abstract: Traditional measures of the therapeutic alliance do not capture the dual roles inherent in relationships with involuntary clients. Providers not only care for, but also have control over, involuntary clients. In 2 studies of probationers mandated to psychiatric treatment (n 90; n 322), the authors developed and validated the revised Dual-Role Relationships Inventory (DRI–R). The authors found that (a) relationship quality in mandated treatment involves caring and fairness, trust, and an authoritative (not authoritarian) style, (b) the DRI–R assesses these domains of relationship quality, is internally consistent, and relates in a theoretically coherent pattern with ratings of within-session behavior and with measures of the therapeutic alliance, relationship satisfaction, symptoms, and treatment motivation, and (c) the quality of dual-role relationships predicts future compliance with the rules, as assessed by probation violations and revocation. The DRI–R covaries with multiple domains more strongly than a leading measure of the therapeutic alliance, suggesting that it better captures the nature and effect of relationship quality in mandated treatment.

Smith, Paula, Myrinda Schweitzer, Ryan M. Labrecque, and Edward J. Latessa (2012). “Improving Probation Officers’ Supervision Skills: An Evaluation of the EPICS Model.” Journal of Crime and Justice, 35(2): 189-199.

Abstract: Previous research suggests traditional probation and parole services perform less than optimally in reducing recidivism. In response to these findings, several attempts to integrate the principles of effective intervention and core correctional practices into community supervision have been made. Preliminary results from several jurisdictions suggest that the use of core correctional practices within the context of community supervision has been associated with meaningful reductions in offender recidivism. This research provided the impetus for the development of a new model by the University of Cincinnati Corrections Institute, entitled Effective Practices in Community Supervision (EPICS). The purpose of the EPICS model is to teach community supervision officers how to translate the principles of effective intervention into practice, and, more specifically, how to use core correctional practices in face-to-face interactions with offenders. Results indicated that officers trained in the EPICS model demonstrated more consistent use of core correctional practices. Remarkably, trained officers also became more proficient in their use of these skills over time as a result of participation in coaching sessions. These preliminary findings underscore the importance of training and coaching as an on-going process to assist agencies in gaining adherence to the principles of effective intervention and core correctional practices.

Labrecque, Ryan M. and Smith, Paula (2015). “Does Training and Coaching Matter? An 18-Month Evaluation of a Community Supervision Model.” Victims and Offenders, 12(2): 233-252.

Abstract: During the last decade, several formalized approaches have been developed to improve the effectiveness of probation and parole by implementing evidence-based research into community supervision practices. A key component of these new approaches are the use of officer coaching sessions, which are designed to improve officer fidelity in the core correctional skill areas. This study explores the impact of an initial training and monthly coaching sessions in the Effective Practices in Community Supervision (EPICS) model on probation and parole officer use of core correctional skills. The results examine the average quarterly officer use of skills over an 18-month follow-up period based on training status (i.e., trained versus untrained officers) in the EPICS model. This study adds to the understanding of the role training and coaching may play in improving officer use of core correctional skills. Policy implications and recommendations for future research are also discussed.

Viglione, Jill and Labrecque, Ryan M. (2020). “Core Correctional Practices in Community Supervision: An Evaluation of a Policy Mandate to Increase Probation Officer Use of Skills.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 65(8): 858-881.

Abstract: Community supervision officer training programs aim to translate core correctional practices into routine practice. These training programs emphasize skill-building designed to shift supervision strategies from law enforcement/compliance-oriented to a focus on promoting and supporting behavior change. Despite evidence of their effectiveness, research finds trained officers use newly learned skills infrequently. The current study examined the impact of a policy, implemented post-training, designed to encourage trained officers to use skills emphasized by the Staff Training Aimed at Reducing Rearrest (STARR) training program more frequently. The current study examined the effectiveness of this policy on the frequency and type of skills used by officers in their interactions with individuals on their caseload. Analyses suggested the policy mandate was effective in increasing skill use, however officers still used trained skills in less than half of their interactions. Implications and considerations for increasing the use of skills are discussed.

Labrecque, Ryan M., Viglione, Jill, and Caudy, Michael (2023). “The Impact of Community Supervision Officer Training Programs on Officer and Client Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Justice Quarterly, 40(4): 587-611.

Abstract: Traditional forms of community supervision focusing on control and punitive functions have been shown to be ineffective in improving client outcomes. In response, several officer training programs, including the Strategic Training Initiative in Community Supervision (STICS), Effective Practices in Community Supervision (EPICS), and Staff Training Aimed at Reducing Re-arrest (STARR) models, have been developed to better incorporate more rehabilitative-focused strategies into community corrections practices. In this meta-analysis of 25 studies, we assessed the impact of these programs on a variety of officer and client outcomes. Findings revealed that officer training increases the focus of the discussion content and use of core correctional practice skills during interactions with clients. Results also indicated that training in these programs produces reductions in client recidivism, especially among officers who implement core correctional practice skills with greater fidelity. This study supports the continued use of officer training programs and identifies areas for future research.

Robinson, Charles R., Lowenkamp, Christopher T., Holsinger, Alexander M., VanBenschoten, Scott, Alexander, Melissa, and Oleson, J.C. (2012). "A Random Study of Staff Training Aimed at Reducing Re-arrest (STARR): Using Core Correctional Practices in Probation Interactions." Journal of Crime and Justice, 35(2): 167-188.

Abstract: The recent application of the risk–need–responsivity (RNR) model, in conjunction with core correctional practices, has offered promising results. In the present study, supervision officers were trained in core correctional skills and the RNR model. Supervision officers were randomly assigned to training groups and provided audio recordings of interactions with clients to assess their use of learned skills. The current study utilizes taped interactions between officers and offenders, individual-level offender data, and outcome/recidivism data to investigate the impact of the training regimen, which is the core focus of this paper. Trained probation officers demonstrated greater use of the skills taught during training and their clients had lower failure rates. These findings suggest that providing Staff Training Aimed at Reducing Re-arrest (STARR) training to community supervision officers can impact the officers’ use of important correctional skills and improve client outcomes.

Cullen, Francis T., Jonson, Cheryl Lero, and Mears, Daniel P. (2017). "Reinventing Community Corrections." Crime and Justice 46(1): 27-93.

Abstract: Community corrections in the twenty-first century faces three challenges: how to be an alternative to imprisonment, how to be a conduit for reducing recidivism, and how to do less harm to offenders and their families and communities. Community corrections will reduce imprisonment only if its use is viewed as a legitimate form of punishment and is incentivized, which involves subsidizing the use of community sanctions and making communities pay to imprison offenders (e.g., a cap-and-trade system). To reduce recidivism, it will be necessary to hold officials accountable for this outcome, to ensure that evidence-based supervision is practiced, to use technology to deliver treatment services, and to create information systems that can guide the development, monitoring, and evaluation of interventions. Doing less harm—avoiding iatrogenic effects—will require nonintervention with low-risk offenders, reducing the imposition of needless constraints on offenders (i.e., collateral consequences), and creating opportunities for offenders to be redeemed.

Bonta, James, Rugge, Tanya, Scott, Terri-Lynne, Bourgon, Guy, and Yessine, Annie K. (2008). “Exploring the Black Box of Community Supervision.” Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 47(3): 248-270.

Abstract: Community supervision has been an integral part of corrections since the establishment of probation more than 100 years ago. It has commonly been assumed that offenders benefit from community supervision much more than if they were incarcerated. However, empirical evidence in support of the effectiveness of community supervision in reducing recidivism questions this assumption. A detailed examination of audio taped interviews between 62 probation officers and their clients found relatively poor adherence to some of the basic principles of effective intervention–the principles of Risk, Need and Responsivity. For the most part, probation officers spent too much time on the enforcement aspect of supervision (i.e., complying with the conditions of probation) and not enough time on the service delivery role of supervision. Major criminogenic needs such as antisocial attitudes and social supports for crime were largely ignored and probation officers evidenced few of the skills (e.g., prosocial modeling, differential reinforcement) that could influence behavioral change in their clients. As a snapshot of present practices, this study begins a path to a systematic and structured training agenda to help probation officers become more effective agents of change.

Viglione, Jill (2017). “Street-Level Decision Making: Acceptability, Feasibility, and Use of Evidence-Based Practices in Adult Probation.” Justice Quarterly, 40(4): 587-611.

Abstract: Traditional forms of community supervision focusing on control and punitive functions have been shown to be ineffective in improving client outcomes. In response, several officer training programs, including the Strategic Training Initiative in Community Supervision (STICS), Effective Practices in Community Supervision (EPICS), and Staff Training Aimed at Reducing Re-arrest (STARR) models, have been developed to better incorporate more rehabilitative-focused strategies into community corrections practices. In this meta-analysis of 25 studies, we assessed the impact of these programs on a variety of officer and client outcomes. Findings revealed that officer training increases the focus of the discussion content and use of core correctional practice skills during interactions with clients.
Results also indicated that training in these programs produces reductions in client recidivism, especially among officers who implement core correctional practice skills with greater fidelity. This study supports the continued use of officer training programs and identifies areas for future research.